'Geopolitics of Sympathy': George F. Kennan and NATO Enlargement

In the light of the dramatic escalation of the Russian war on Ukraine since February 2022, questions concerning the handling of Russia in the post-Cold War era, and the enlargement of NATO in particular, are timelier than ever. This article scrutinises the views of George F. Kennan, one of the most influential critics of the decision to expand NATO. It is widely accepted that Kennan's opposition to NATO was grounded in realism about international affairs. A careful study of the development of his thinking, based on his private papers and archival sources from many countries, suggests that his perceptions of developments inside Russia and his imagination of the countries in Central and Eastern Europe were more important than any foreign policy doctrine. Kennan's criticism was grounded in his 'geopolitics of sympathy', understood as a fusion of mental maps, sympathies and personal connections towards the region affected by NATO enlargement. However, Kennan's geopolitics must be considered in conjunction with his ideas about international order, in particular with his defence of empire.